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Rickover pictured in 1955 as a rear admiralBirth nameChaim Godalia RickoverNickname(s)'Father of the Nuclear Navy'; 'The Kindly Old Gentleman,' or simply 'KOG'BornJanuary 27, 1900 ( 1900-01-27),DiedJuly 8, 1986 ( 1986-07-09) (aged 86)AllegianceService/ branchYears of service1918–1982RankAdmiralCommands heldNaval ReactorsBattles/warsWorld War IICold WarAwards(3)(2)(2)Spouse(s)Ruth D. Masters (1931–1972 (her death); 1 child)Eleonore A. Bednowicz (1974–1986 (his death))Hyman G.

Rickover (January 27, 1900 – July 8, 1986) was an Admiral in the. He directed the original development of naval nuclear propulsion and controlled its operations for three decades as director of the U.S. In addition, he oversaw the development of the, the world's first commercial used for generating electricity.Rickover is known as the 'Father of the Nuclear Navy,' and his influence on the Navy and its warships was of such scope that he 'may well go down in history as one of the Navy's most important officers.' He served in a flag rank for nearly 30 years (1953 to 1982), ending his career as a four-star admiral. His total of 63 years of active duty service made Rickover the longest-serving naval officer, as well as the longest-serving member of the U.S armed forces in history.Rickover is one of four people who have been awarded two. His substantial legacy of technical achievements includes the United States Navy's continuing record of zero reactor accidents, defined as 'the uncontrolled release of to the environment subsequent to reactor core damage.' Contents.Early life and education Rickover was born Chaim Godalia Rickover to Abraham and Rachel (Unger) Rickover, a Polish Jewish family from in Russian Poland.

His parents changed his name to 'Hyman' which is derived from, meaning 'life'. He did not use his middle name Godalia (a form of ), but he substituted 'George' when required to list one for the Naval Academy oath. Rickover made passage to New York City with his mother and sister in March 1906, fleeing anti-Semitic Russian during the. They joined Abraham, who had made earlier trips there beginning in 1897 to become established. Rickover's family lived initially on the but moved two years later to, which was a heavily Jewish neighborhood at the time, where Rickover's father continued work as a tailor. Rickover took his first paid job at age nine, earning three cents an hour for holding a light as his neighbor operated a machine. Later, he delivered groceries.

He graduated from grammar school at 14.Rickover attended in Chicago and graduated with honors in 1918. He then held a full-time job as a telegraph boy delivering telegrams, through which he became acquainted with Congressman, a Czech Jewish immigrant. Sabath nominated Rickover for appointment to the. Rickover was only a third alternate for appointment, but he passed the entrance exam and was accepted. Early naval career through World War II Rickover's active duty naval career began in 1918, during a time when attending military academies was considered active duty service, due in part to. On 2 June 1922, Rickover graduated 107th out of 540 midshipmen and was commissioned as an. He joined the on 5 September 1922.

Rickover impressed his commanding officer with his hard work and efficiency, and was made engineer officer on 21 June 1923, becoming the youngest such officer in the.He next served on board the before earning a (M.S.) in from in 1930 by way of a year at the and further coursework at Columbia. At the latter institution, he met Ruth D.

Masters, a graduate student in international law, whom he married in 1931 after she returned from her doctoral studies at the in Paris. Shortly after marrying, Rickover wrote to his parents of his decision to become an, remaining so for the remainder of his life.Rickover had a high regard for the quality of the education he received at Columbia, as demonstrated in this excerpt from a speech he gave at the university some 52 years after attending:In 1929 I attended the Columbia School of Engineering for postgraduate study in electrical engineering. Columbia was the first institution that encouraged me to think rather than memorize.

My teachers were notable in that many had gained practical engineering experience outside the university and were able to share their experience with their students. I am grateful, among others, to Professors Morecroft, Hehre, and Arendt. Much of what I have subsequently learned and accomplished in engineering is based on the solid foundation of principles I learned from them.Rickover preferred life on smaller ships, and he also knew that young officers in the service were advancing quickly, so he went to Washington and volunteered for submarine duty. His application was turned down due to his age, at that time 29 years. Fortunately for Rickover, he ran into his former commanding officer from Nevada while leaving the building, who interceded successfully on his behalf. From 1929 to 1933, Rickover qualified for submarine duty and command aboard the submarines.

While at the Office of the Inspector of Naval Material in, in 1933, Rickover translated Das Unterseeboot ( The Submarine) by Admiral. Rickover's translation became a basic text for the U.S. Submarine service. On 17 July 1937, he reported aboard the at and assumed what would be his only ship-command with additional duty as Commander, Mine Division Three, Asiatic Fleet. The had occurred ten days earlier, and in August, Finch stood out for Shanghai to protect American citizens and interests from the conflict between Chinese and Japanese forces. On 25 September, Rickover was promoted to lieutenant commander, retroactive to 1 July. In October, his designation as an engineering duty officer became effective, and he was relieved of his three-month command of Finch at Shanghai on 5 October 1937.

Rickover was assigned to the in the Philippines, and was transferred shortly thereafter to the Bureau of Engineering in Washington, D.C. Once there, he took up his duties as assistant chief of the Electrical section of the Bureau of Engineering on 15 August 1939.On 10 April 1942, after America's entry into, Rickover flew to to organize repairs to the electrical power plant of. Rickover had been promoted to the rank of on 1 January 1942, and in late June of that year was made a temporary. In late 1944 he appealed for a transfer to an active command. He was sent to investigate inefficiencies at the naval supply depot at, then was appointed in July 1945 to command of a ship repair facility on. Shortly thereafter, his command was destroyed by, and he subsequently spent some time helping to teach school to native children.Later in the war, his service as head of the Electrical Section in the Bureau of Ships brought him a and gave him experience in directing large development programs, choosing talented technical people, and working closely with private industry.

Magazine featured him on the cover of its January 11, 1954 issue. The accompanying article described his wartime service:Sharp-tongued Hyman Rickover spurred his men to exhaustion, ripped through red tape, drove contractors into rages. He went on making enemies, but by the end of the war he had won the rank of captain. He had also won a reputation as a man who gets things done. Naval Reactors and the Atomic Energy Commission.

Admiral Rickover looking over USS Nautilus, the world's first nuclear-powered vessel.In December 1945, Rickover was appointed of the on the west coast, and was assigned to work with at, to develop a nuclear propulsion plant for destroyers. In 1946, an initiative was begun at the 's Clinton Laboratory (now the ) to develop a nuclear electric generating plant. Realizing the potential that nuclear energy held for the Navy, Rickover applied. Rickover was sent to Oak Ridge through the efforts of his wartime boss, Rear Admiral Earle Mills, who became the head of the Navy's that same year.

Rickover became an early convert to the idea of, and was the driving force for shifting the Navy's initial focus from applications on destroyers to submarines. Rickover's vision was not initially shared by his immediate superiors: he was recalled from Oak Ridge and assigned 'advisory duties' with an office in an abandoned ladies room in the Navy Building. He subsequently went around several layers of superior officers, and in 1947 went directly to the Chief of Naval Operations, also a former submariner. Nimitz immediately understood the potential of nuclear propulsion in submarines and recommended the project to the Secretary of the Navy,. Sullivan's endorsement to build the world's first nuclear-powered vessel, later caused Rickover to state that Sullivan was 'the true father of the Nuclear Navy.' Subsequently, Rickover became chief of a new section in the, the Nuclear Power Division, and began work with, the Oak Ridge director of research, to initiate and develop the and to begin the design of the for submarine propulsion. In February 1949 he was assigned to the 's Division of Reactor Development, and then assumed control of the Navy's effort as Director of the Branch, reporting to Mills.

This twin role enabled him to lead the effort to develop Nautilus. In keeping with the responsibilities of his assignment, in 1953, Rickover was promoted to the rank of. The decision to select Rickover as head of development of the nation's nuclear submarine program ultimately rested with Admiral Mills. According to Lieutenant General, director of the Manhattan Project, Mills was anxious to have a very determined man involved. He knew that Rickover was 'not too easy to get along with' and 'not too popular,' but in his judgement Rickover was the man whom the Navy could depend on 'no matter what opposition he might encounter'.

Rickover and the team did not disappoint: the result was a highly reliable nuclear reactor in a form-factor that would fit into a submarine hull with no more than a 28-foot. This became known as the. Nautilus was launched and commissioned with this reactor in 1954. Later Rickover oversaw the development of the, the first commercial pressurized water reactor nuclear power plant. Of the AEC decided that the Rickover-Westinghouse pressurized-water reactor was 'the best choice for a reactor to demonstrate the production of electricity' with Rickover 'having a going organization and a reactor project under way that now had no specific use to justify it'. This was accepted by and the Commission in January 1954.Rickover was promoted to in 1958, the same year that he was awarded the first of two.

He exercised tight control for the next three decades over the ships, technology, and personnel of the nuclear Navy, interviewing and approving or denying every prospective officer being considered for a nuclear ship. Over the course of Rickover's career, these personal interviews numbered in the tens of thousands; over 14,000 interviews were with recent college-graduates alone.

The interviewees ranged from midshipmen and newly commissioned destined for nuclear-powered submarines and surface combatants, to very senior combat-experienced who sought command of nuclear-powered aircraft carriers. The content of most of these interviews has been lost to history, though some were later chronicled in several books on Rickover's career, as well as in a with in 1984.

Safety record Rickover's stringent standards are largely credited with being responsible for the U.S. Navy's continuing record of zero reactor accidents (defined as the uncontrolled release of fission products to the environment resulting from damage to a reactor core).

He made it a point to be aboard during the initial sea trial of almost every nuclear submarine completing its new-construction period. Following the on March 28, 1979, Admiral Rickover was asked to testify before Congress in the general context of answering the question as to why naval nuclear propulsion had succeeded in achieving a record of zero reactor-accidents, as opposed to the dramatic one that had just taken place. In his testimony, he said:I am always chagrined at the tendency of people to expect that I have a simple, easy gimmick that makes my program function. Any successful program functions as an integrated whole of many factors. Trying to select one aspect as the key one will not work.

Each element depends on all the others.The accident-free record of United States Navy reactor operations stands in stark contrast to those of the Soviet Union, which had. As stated in a retrospective analysis in October 2007:U.S. Submarines far outperformed the Soviet ones in the crucial area of stealth, and Rickover's obsessive fixation on safety and quality control gave the U.S.

Nuclear Navy a vastly superior safety record to the Soviet one.As head of Naval Reactors, Rickover's focus and responsibilities were dedicated to reactor safety rather than tactical or strategic submarine warfare training. However, this extreme focus was well known during Rickover's era as a potential hindrance to balancing operational priorities. One way that this was addressed after Rickover retired was that only the very strongest, former at-sea submarine commanders have held Rickover's now unique eight-year position as, the longest chartered tenure in the U.S. From Rickover's first replacement, to today's head of Naval Reactors, all have held command of nuclear submarines, their squadrons and ocean fleets, but none have been a long-term such as Rickover.In 1973 Rickover was promoted to the rank of. This was the first time in the history of the U.S.

Navy that an officer with a career path other than an operational line officer achieved that rank. Views on nuclear power Given Rickover's single-minded focus on naval nuclear propulsion, design, and operations, it came as a surprise to many in 1982, near the end of his career, when he testified before the U.S. Congress that, were it up to him what to do with nuclear powered ships, he 'would sink them all.' At a congressional hearing Rickover testified that:I do not believe that nuclear power is worth it if it creates radiation. Then you might ask me why do I have nuclear powered ships. That is a necessary evil. I would sink them all.

I am not proud of the part I played in it. I did it because it was necessary for the safety of this country. That's why I am such a great exponent of stopping this whole nonsense of war. Unfortunately limits — attempts to limit war have always failed.

The lesson of history is when a war starts every nation will ultimately use whatever weapon it has available. Every time you produce radiation, you produce something that has a certain half-life, in some cases for billions of years. It is important that we control these forces and try to eliminate them. — Economics of Defense Policy: Hearing before the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, 97th Cong., 2nd sess., Pt. 1 (1982)A few months later, following his retirement, Rickover spoke more specifically regarding the questions 'Could you comment on your own responsibility in helping to create a nuclear navy? Do you have any regrets?' :I do not have regrets.

I believe I helped preserve the peace for this country. Why should I regret that?

What I accomplished was approved by Congress — which represents our people. All of you live in safety from domestic enemies because of security from the police. Likewise, you live in safety from foreign enemies because our military keeps them from attacking us.

Nuclear technology was already under development in other countries. My assigned responsibility was to develop our nuclear navy. I managed to accomplish this. Controversy Rickover has been called 'the most famous and controversial admiral of his era.' He was hyperactive, blunt, confrontational, insulting, and a workaholic, always demanding of others without regard for rank or position.

Moreover, he had 'little tolerance for mediocrity, none for stupidity.' Even while a captain, Rickover did not conceal his opinions, and many of the officers whom he regarded as unintelligent eventually rose to be admirals and were assigned to the Pentagon.

Rickover frequently found himself in bureaucratic combat with these senior naval officers, to the point that he almost missed becoming an admiral; two selection boards passed him over for promotion, and it took the intervention of the White House, U.S. Congress, and the Secretary of the Navy before he was promoted.Rickover's military authority and congressional mandate were absolute with regard to the U.S. Fleet's reactor operations, but his controlling personality was frequently a subject of internal Navy controversy. He was head of the Naval Reactors branch, and thus responsible for signing off on a crew's competence to operate the reactor safely, giving him the power to effectively remove a warship from active service, which he did on several occasions. The view became established that he sometimes exercised power to settle scores. Author referred to him as a 'tyrant' with 'no account of his gradually failing powers' in his later years.

Focus on education. President and Rickover, White House, 1963When he was a child still living in Russian-occupied Poland, Rickover was not allowed to attend public schools because of his Jewish faith.

Starting at the age of four, he attended a religious school where the teaching was solely from the, i.e., in. Following his formal education in the United States, Rickover developed a decades-long and outspoken interest in the educational standards of the US.Rickover believed that US standards of education were unacceptably low. His first book centered on education was a collection of essays calling for improved standards of education, particularly in math and science, entitled Education and Freedom (1959). In it, he stated that 'education is the most important problem facing the United States today' and 'only the massive upgrading of the scholastic standards of our schools will guarantee the future prosperity and freedom of the Republic.'

A second book, Swiss Schools and Ours (1962) was a scathing comparison of the educational systems of Switzerland and America. He argued that the higher standards of Swiss schools, including a longer school day and year, combined with an approach stressing student choice and academic specialization produced superior results. Recognizing that 'nurturing careers of excellence and leadership in science and technology in young scholars is an essential investment in the United States national and global future,' following his retirement Rickover founded the in 1983. Additionally, the (formerly the Rickover Science Institute), founded by Rickover in 1984, is a summer science program hosted by the for high school seniors from around the world.

The General Dynamics scandal In the early 1980s, structural welding flaws in submarines under construction were covered up by falsified inspection records, and the resulting scandal led to significant delays and expenses in the delivery of several submarines being built at the Division shipyard in. The yard tried to pass on the vast cost overruns to the Navy, while Rickover demanded that the yard make good on its 'shoddy' workmanship. The Navy settled with General Dynamics in 1981, paying out $634 million of $843 million in cost overrun and reconstruction claims. Secretary of the Navy was partly motivated to seek the agreement in order to continue to focus on achieving 's goal of a, but Rickover was extremely bitter over the General Dynamics yard being paid hundreds of millions of dollars, and he lambasted both the settlement and Secretary Lehman.

This was not Rickover's first clash with the defense industry; he was historically harsh in exacting high standards from defense contractors.A Navy Ad Hoc Gratuities Board determined that Rickover had received gifts from General Dynamics over a 16-year period valued at $67,628, including jewelry, furniture, exotic knives, and gifts that Rickover had in turn presented to politicians. Charges were investigated that gifts were provided by and the, both major nuclear ship contractors for the Navy.

Secretary Lehman admonished him in a non-punitive letter and stated that Rickover's 'fall from grace with these little trinkets should be viewed in the context of his enormous contributions to the Navy.' Rickover released a statement through his lawyer saying his 'conscience is clear' with respect to the gifts. 'No gratuity or favor ever affected any decision I made.' Senator of Wisconsin, a longtime supporter of Rickover, later publicly associated a debilitating stroke suffered by the admiral to his having been censured and 'dragged through the mud by the very institution to which he rendered his invaluable service.' Forced retirement By the late 1970s, Rickover's position seemed stronger than it had ever been. Over many years, powerful friends on both the House and Senate Armed Services Committees ensured that he remained on active duty long after most other admirals had retired from their second careers. However, Secretary of the Navy felt that Rickover was hindering the well-being of the navy.

As Lehman stated in his book, Command of the Seas:One of my first orders of business as Secretary of the Navy would be to solve. The Rickover problem. Rickover's legendary achievements were in the past. His present viselike grip on much of the navy was doing it much harm. I had sought the job because I believed the navy had deteriorated to the point where its weakness seriously threatened our future security.

The navy's grave afflictions included loss of a strategic vision; loss of self-confidence, and morale; a prolonged starvation of resources, leaving vast shortfalls in capability to do the job; and too few ships to cover a sea so great, all resulting in cynicism, exhaustion, and an undercurrent of defeatism. The cult created by Admiral Rickover was itself a major obstacle to recovery, entwining nearly all the issues of culture and policy within the navy.Secretary Lehman eventually attained enough political clout to enforce his decision to retire Rickover.

This was in part assisted by the admiral's nearly insubordinate stance against paying the General Dynamics submarine construction claims, as well as his advanced age and waning political leverage. On July 27, 1981, Lehman was handed the final impetus for ending Rickover's career by way of an operational error on the admiral's part: a 'moderate' loss of ship control and depth excursion while performing a submerged 'crash back' maneuver during the sea trials of the newly constructed. Rickover was the actual man-in-charge during this specific performance test, and his actions and inactions were judged to have been the causal factor. On January 31, 1982, four days after his 82nd birthday, Rickover was forced to retire from the Navy after 63 years of service under 13 ( through ).

According to Rickover, he first learned of his firing when his wife told him what she heard on the radio.According to former President, several weeks following his retirement, Rickover 'was invited to the Oval Office and decided to don his full dress uniform. He told me that he refused to take a seat, listened to the president Reagan ask him to be his special nuclear advisor, replied 'Mr. President, that is bullshit,' and then walked out.' The Navy's official investigation of General Dynamics' Electric Boat division was ended shortly afterward. According to Theodore Rockwell, Rickover's Technical Director for more than 15 years, more than one source at that time stated that General Dynamics officials were bragging around Washington that they had 'gotten Rickover.' Admiral Rickover's final public remarks after his retirement included a lecture in May 1982 at the series under the auspices of the ( 'The Voice for Ethics in International Policy'), developed and polished over the course of the last five of his 63 years of public service. On February 28, 1983, a post-retirement party honoring Admiral Rickover was attended by all three living former U.S.

Presidents at the time, and Carter, all formerly officers in the U.S. President Reagan was not in attendance. Headstone of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, Arlington National Cemetery, Memorial Day, 2017Rickover died at his home in Arlington, Virginia on July 8, 1986 at age 86.

He was buried on July 11 in a small, private ceremony at. On July 14, memorial services were led by Admiral at the, with President Carter, Secretary of State, Secretary Lehman, senior naval officers, and about 1,000 other people in attendance.Rickover is buried in Section 5 at Arlington National Cemetery. His first wife Ruth is buried with him and the name of his second wife Eleonore is inscribed on his gravestone. He is survived by Eleonore and by Robert Rickover, his sole son by his first wife.

Rickover (SSN-709)The Los Angeles-class submarine was named for him. It was commissioned two years before his death, one of the few Navy ships. The submarine was launched on August 27, 1983, sponsored by his second wife Eleonore, commissioned on July 21, 1984, and deactivated on December 14, 2006. In 2015, the Navy announced a named in his honor.Rickover Hall at the houses the departments of Mechanical Engineering, Naval Architecture, Ocean Engineering, Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering. Rickover Center at Naval Nuclear Power Training Command is located at Joint Base Charleston, where Navy personnel begin their engineering training. In 2011, the included Rickover as part of the Technology for the Nuclear Age: Nuclear Propulsion display for its Cold War exhibit, which featured the following quotation:'Good ideas are not adopted automatically. They must be driven into practice with courageous impatience.'

Other things named in his honor include the Admiral Hyman Rickover Fellowship at M.I.T., and Rickover Junior High School. With one ​ 3⁄ 16'.

– 2 awards (1958, 1982)Foreign order Honorary (1946)In recognition of his wartime service, he was invested as an Honorary Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent in 1946. Other awards Admiral Rickover was twice awarded the for exceptional public service; the first in 1958, and the second 25 years later in 1983, becoming one of only three persons to be awarded more than one. In 1980, President Jimmy Carter presented Admiral Rickover with the, the United States' highest non-military honor, for his contributions to world peace. He also received 61 civilian awards and 15 honorary degrees, including the 'For engineering and demonstrative leadership in the development of safe and reliable nuclear power and its successful application to our national security and economic needs.' November 14, 1981 – via www.washingtonpost.com. The New York Times.

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What Is Reactivity Feedback

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Wagh, in, 2016Nuclear energy is generated from nuclear fuel. The fuel, consisting of enriched uranium, is produced from mined ore, which goes through chemical and metallurgical extraction and shaping processes.

The fuel is shaped into rods for use in a nuclear reactor. These activities of production of fuel generate significant amounts of debris, chemical waste that is highly acidic, as well as radioactive and end-of-use contaminated hardware.

Such waste is generated throughout the nuclear fuel cycle, and needs to be stored appropriately, prior to ultimate treatment and disposal. Hoyer, in, 2012 16.2.14 Other sourcesNuclear energy sources have been used in some satellites for electricity generation. A common procedure at the end of the expected lifetime of such satellites is to boost the satellite to a higher orbit for at least 500 years to allow for the decay of the fission products before the satellite re-enters the earth’s atmosphere and burns up ( IAEA, 1988). However, the US satellite ‘Transit 5BN-3’ with a radioisotope generator containing 630 TBq of 238Pu failed to achieve the higher orbit and burned up over the West Indian Ocean north of Madagascar in 1964 ( IAEA, 1988). Sohn, in, 2014 4.8.4 Nuclear power plantsNuclear energy is seen as one of the most promising alternative energy sources to oil, and monitoring of nuclear power plants (NPPs) is another area where piezoelectric transducers can be potentially exploited. In response to this interest, there have been several preliminary studies where the applicability of piezoelectric transducers to NPP monitoring has been investigated.

Stepinski et al. (1998) developed a sensor array made of piezoelectric composites for assessing the structural integrity of nuclear waste fuel. Machado et al. (2000) developed a specially designed PVDF sensor for the monitoring of nuclear fuel assemblies, and their sensors have been tested using a prototype of fuel assembly. More recently, Ai et al. (2010) used piezoelectric AE sensors to detect fatigue cracks in a main cooling pipe system. The biggest challenge for NNP applications is that sensors often need to be embedded for online monitoring, and should be designed to withstand high temperature and radiation.

To the best knowledge of the authors, currently there are no commercially available piezoelectric transducers that can meet these stringent requirements imposed by NNPs. Gregory Choppin. Christian Ekberg, in, 2013 21.5.3 The thorium-uranium (Th-U) fuel cycleNuclear energy cannot be produced by a self-sustained chain reaction in thorium alone because natural thorium contains no fissile isotopes. Hence the thorium-uranium cycle must be started by using enriched uranium, by irradiation of thorium in a uranium- or plutonium-fuelled reactor or by using a strong external neutron source, e.g. An accelerator driven spallation source.Fertile 232Th can be transformed into fissile 233U in any thermal reactor.

The reactions in 232Th irradiated by neutrons are given in Fig. Of the thermally fissile atoms 233U has the highest σ f/ σ n,γ ratio, i.e. Highest fission efficiency. The η-value is high enough to permit breeding in the thermal region.

Capture of neutrons in 233U is not a serious drawback as a second capture (in 234U) yields fissile 235U, but reduces the breeding gain because two neutrons are consumed without a net increase in fissile material. Since σ tot increases with neutron energy (from ∼7 b at 0.025 eV to ∼26 b for reactor conditions; cf. 19.3) the slightly harder neutron spectrum in PHWR and GCR make such reactors the prime candidates for a thorium-uranium fuel cycle together with the molten salt reactor (§ 20.3). The fuel may be arranged in a core ( 233U) and blanket ( 232Th) fashion, or mixed fissile and fertile material as, for example, in the HTGR prototype (High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor) graphite matrix fuels, or as a metal fluoride melt. The initial 233U must be produced from thorium in reactors fuelled with 235U (or 239Pu) or in special accelerator driven devices. After sufficient amounts of 233U have been produced, the Th-U fuel cycle may become self sustaining, i.e. Thermal breeding is established.The advantage of the Th–U fuel cycle is that it increases nuclear energy resources considerably because thorium is about three times more abundant on earth than uranium and almost as widely distributed.

Nuclear Reactor Dynamics Pdf Creator Mac

In combination with the uranium fuel cycle it could more than double the lifetime of the uranium resources by running the reactors at a high conversion rate (∼1.0) and recycling the fuel. Very rich thorium minerals are more common than rich uranium minerals. The presence of extensive thorium ores has motivated some countries (e.g.

India) to develop the Th–U fuel cycle.No full-scale Th-U fuel cycle has yet been demonstrated and reprocessing has only been demonstrated on an experimental scale. The fuel cycle has to overcome the high activity problems due to the presence of 228Th formed in the thorium fraction and 232U formed in the uranium fraction ( Fig.

The Th–U fuel cycle has a rather specific advantage over the U–Pu cycle in that its high active waste from reprocessing contains a much smaller amount of long-lived heavy actinides, although it probably contain some 231Pa. With regard to nuclear weapons proliferation 233U is almost as good a weapons material as 239Pu and easier to produce as a single isotope by continuous withdrawal of protactinium, since it is the decay product of 233Pa ( t ½ 27 d), see also § 21.7. JAN RYDBERG, in, 2002 21.5.3 The thorium-uranium (Th-U) fuel cycleNuclear energy cannot be produced by a self-sustained chain reaction in thorium alone because natural thorium contains no fissile isotopes.

Hence the thorium-uranium cycle must be started by using enriched uranium, by irradiation of thorium in a uranium- or plutonium-fueled reactor or by using a strong external neutron source, e.g. An accelerator driven spallation source.Fertile 232Th can be transformed into fissile 233U in any thermal reactor. The reactions in 232Th irradiated by neutrons are given in Fig. Of the thermally fissile atoms 233U has the highest σ f/σ n,γ ratio, i.e.

Highest fission efficiency. The η-value is high enough to permit breeding in the thermal region.

Capture of neutrons in 233U is not a serious drawback as a second capture (in 234U) yields fissile 235U, but reduces the breeding gain because two neutrons are consumed without a net increase in fissile material. Since σ tot increases with neutron energy (from ∼7 b at 0.025 eV to ∼26 b for reactor conditions; cf. 19.3) the slightly harder neutron spectrum in PHWR and GCR make such reactors the prime candidates for a thorium-uranium fuel cycle together with the molten salt reactor ( §20.3). The fuel may be arranged in a core ( 233U) and blanket ( 232Th) fashion, or mixed fissile and fertile material as, for example, in the HTGR prototype (High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor) graphite matrix fuels, or as a metal fluoride melt. The initial 233U must be produced from thorium in reactors fueled with 235U (or 239Pu) or in special accelerator driven devices. After sufficient amounts of 233U have been produced, the Th-U fuel cycle may become self sustaining, i.e. Thermal breeding is established.The advantage of the Th-U fuel cycle is that it increases nuclear energy resources considerably because thorium is about three times more abundant on earth than uranium and almost as widely distributed.

In combination with the uranium fuel cycle it could more than double the lifetime of the uranium resources by running the reactors at a high conversion rate (∼1.0) and recycling the fuel. Very rich thorium minerals are more common than rich uranium minerals. The presence of extensive thorium ores has motivated some countries (e.g.

India) to develop the Th-U fuel cycle.No full-scale Th-U fuel cycle has yet been demonstrated and reprocessing has only been demonstrated on an experimental scale. The fuel cycle has to overcome the high activity problems due to the presence of 228Th formed in the thorium fraction and 232U formed in the uranium fraction ( Fig. The Th-U fuel cycle has a rather specific advantage over the U-Pu cycle in that its high active waste from reprocessing contains a much smaller amount of longlived heavy actinides, and thus constitutes a smaller long term hazard. With regard to nuclear weapons proliferation 233U is almost as good a weapons material as 239Pu and easier to produce as a single isotope by continuous withdrawal of protactinium, since it is the decay product of 233Pa ( t ½ 27 d), see also §21.7. Solid-state nuclear track detectors are vastly used in fission studies. Molten rare earth fluorides are studied in mixtures with AF and by ranging the composition for two reasons: (1) in the various applications, they are dissolved in AF or AF-BF 2 and (2) the liquidus temperature is lower.

A scheme of the spectroscopic studies of molten RF 3–AF is shown in Figure 3.5. It evinces the scarcity of the available information. The extrema of this series (La and Y) have been better characterized but nothing is known in the intermediate domain. Although the RF 3–AF physicochemical properties are not linear from La to Lu, their liquid structure seems to be very similar 56.

However, some discrepancies occur between the different spectroscopies. It must be underlined that for each spectroscopy, all the interpretations on the molten RF 3–AF have been based on the comparison with well-defined solid compounds and that no calculation to reproduce the spectrum has been performed yet.

Note that for molten RCl 3–ACl, the calculations of EXAFS and Raman spectra have already been carried out 57, 58. State of the spectroscopic studies of molten rare earth fluorides. The length of the rectangle inside each case represents the investigated domain of composition (full: x RF 3 from 0 to 1, half: x RF 3 from 0 to 0.5, etc.) by NMR (black and white lines), Raman (black), and EXAFS (gray) spectroscopy.The molten LaF 3–AF system has been studied over the whole composition range, from x LaF 3 = 0 to 1 and for A = Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs. Molten LaF 3–LiF–CsF and LaF 3–LiF–CaF 2 have also been studied 31, 59. Going from x LaF 3 = 0 to 1, the liquid structure can be described as follows. At low x LaF 3  850 °C) and therefore have been attributed to the vibrational mode of YF 6 3− units. As for LaF 3, from isolated at low x YF 3, the YF 6 3− units are bridged together through fluorine ions at higher x YF 3.

Also based on a comparison with reference solid compounds, NMR results conclude to slightly higher n. The position of the 89Y peak at x YF 3 = 0.5 depends on the alkaline, suggesting that n decreases from Li ( n ≈ 7–8) to K ( n ≈ 7).This evolution of the liquid structure with x RF 3 induces an effect on the dynamical properties 4. Hence, when x RF 3 is increased, the viscosity increases and the diffusion and ionic conductivity decrease ( Figure 3.3). Grosvenor, in, 2016 IntroductionNuclear energy can provide large amounts of energy that can meet industrial and societal energy needs. 1–5 Nuclear power plants produced  12% of world's energy in 2012.

6 However, the nuclear industry has produced, and continues to produce, a significant amount of radioactive nuclear waste. For example, the accumulated nuclear waste from spent nuclear fuel (measured by volume) and uranium mill tailings were 9079 m 3 and 214,000,000 tons, respectively, in Canada till the end of 2010. 7A number of nuclear waste forms have been proposed to immobilize nuclear waste from spent nuclear fuel, including ceramic oxides. 8–12 Nuclear waste forms are materials that can safely and securely incorporate various radioactive nuclear waste elements. A key concern of nuclear waste form materials is the long-term stability and durability of these materials, which may be affected by the radioactive decay of incorporated nuclear waste elements. 12–18 During the radioactive decay (i.e., α- or β-decay) process, the incorporated radioactive nuclear waste elements may release α- or β-particles over a period of time and transform to daughter products.

These events can damage the structure of a nuclear waste form through various processes. The decay of incorporated radioactive elements can lead to the swelling of the structure and the development of crystal defects.

8 A change in the structure of a material because of radiation damage can affect its ability to restrict the mobility of contained radioactive waste elements. 8 Studying how a proposed nuclear waste form responds to the radioactive decay of incorporated nuclear waste elements is a crucial step for the development of these materials.Ceramic materials have been proposed as nuclear waste forms, as the naturally occurring mineral analogs can contain actinides and many remain crystalline (or partially crystalline) over millions of years. 19–24 A number of chemically durable, stable, and flexible ceramic materials have been proposed as potential nuclear waste forms such as zirconolite (CaZrTi 2O 7), monazite ((Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO 4), hollandite (BaAl 2Ti 6O 16), Zircon (ZrSiO 4), perovskite (ABO 3; A and B are cations occupied in different atomic positions of crystal structure), fluorite (AO 2), and pyrochlore (A 2B 2O 7). 15, 16, 19, 24, 25 Multiphase ceramic materials like Synroc (i.e., synthetic rock), have also been designed to incorporate a wide range of complex nuclear waste elements.

19, 25–29 Various forms of Synroc have been developed to immobilize nuclear waste elements including pyrochlore-type oxide- (e.g., (Ca,Gd,U,Pu,Hf) 2Ti 2O 7) enriched Synroc (Synroc-F) which has been developed for the disposal of nuclear waste from CANDU (Canada deuterium uranium) reactors. 19, 29–32 This multiphase material has been observed to be efficient for the immobilization of nuclear waste with a loading of 50 wt% U/PuO 2. 19, 29, 32, 33. The pyrochlore-type crystal structure, which is the focus of this contribution, shows remarkable compositional diversity with over 500 compositions being known. 34, 35 The diverse chemistry of pyrochlore-type oxides has resulted in these materials having a range of technological applications such as catalysis, piezoelectricity, ferro- and ferri-magnetism, luminescence, giant magneto resistance, and ionic conductivity. 36–41 The advantages of using pyrochlore-type oxides as nuclear waste forms are high compositional diversity, structural flexibility, chemical durability, and resistance to radiation-induced damage of these materials. 16, 25, 34, 35, 42, 43 The pyrochlore-type crystal structure (A 2B 2O 7; space group: F d 3 ¯ m ) is related to fluorite structure (AO 2, space group: F m 3 ¯ m); however, it has two cation sites (vs.

One in the fluorite structure) and one-eighth fewer oxygen ions. 16, 34, 35, 42 The pyrochlore-type structure is shown in Fig. 44 The A-site cations (A = La–Lu, Ca, Y, etc.) are generally trivalent while the B-site cations (B = Ti, Sn, Ta, Zr, Hf, etc.) are tetravalent.

It is also possible for the A- and B-site cations to have oxidation states other than 3 + and 4 +, respectively. 16, 34, 42, 45 The A-site cations are in an eight-coordinate site within a distorted cubic polyhedra and the B-site cations occupy a distorted octahedral environment. The structure has three distinct oxygen anion sites within tetrahedral interstices and one of the anion sites is vacant when the pyrochlore structure is perfectly ordered. 42, 46 The local environments for each oxygen anion site are OA 4, OB 4, and OA 2B 2.

A portion of the unit cell (1/8) of the pyrochlore-type structure of A 2B 2O 7 is shown. The structure consists of AO 8 in distorted cubic polyhedra ( dark gray), distorted BO 6 octahedra ( light gray), and O atoms ( dark gray spheres) occupying tetrahedral interstitial sites.Antisite disorder can occur among cation and anion sites in pyrochlore-type oxide materials depending on the composition and the method used to synthesize these materials. 47, 48 Antisite disorder can also be driven by thermal treatment, the application of an external pressure, or implanting the material with an ion beam. 47, 49, 50 The driving force for the degree of cation antisite disorder is generally dependent on the ratio of A- and B-site ionic radii ( r A/ r B).

As the ionic radius ratio ( r A/ r B) decreases and approaches  1.46, the ordered pyrochlore structure can transform to the defect fluorite structure (i.e., order–disorder phase transition) through the disordering of A- and B-site cations. 16, 48, 50, 51 Other factors, such as the covalency of the metal–oxygen bonds and the electronic structure of the material, can also influence the transformation of the ordered pyrochlore-type structure to the disordered defect fluorite-type structure. 16, 52–54Pyrochlore-type oxides (A 2B 2O 7) have received considerable attention for nuclear waste sequestration applications. It is important to understand how the electronic structure of these materials changes depending on the composition and how the structure of these materials is affected by radiation.

X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) is a powerful technique that can be used to study the electronic structure of the materials as well as the effect of radiation-induced structural damage on these materials. The objective of this contribution is to demonstrate how XANES can be used to extract important information on pyrochlore-type oxides, including: oxidation state, coordination number (CN), antisite disorder, and the effect of radiation on the structure of the material. Jean-Paul Glatz. Tsuyoshi Murakami, in, 2013 26.1 ContextAdvanced nuclear energy systems, as defined by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF), are supposed to provide a sustainable energy generation for the future 1.

Major objectives are effective fuel utilization and waste minimization through recycling of all actinides. It is therefore obvious that the corresponding fuel cycles will play a central role in trying to achieve these goals.Direct nuclear fuel disposal is the option chosen by countries such as Sweden, Finland, Spain, Germany, and the United States, whereas industrial fuel reprocessing has been used for several decades already in France and the United Kingdom and will be soon implemented in Japan. After reprocessing, the high-level waste raffinate is vitrified and contains all long-lived fission products, along with the minor actinides (MA), mainly Am, Cm, and Np.Partitioning and transmutation (P&T) has been developed for several decades as an alternative radioactive waste management option 2 to the direct geological disposal of spent nuclear fuel. In the P&T strategy, most of the MAs, long-lived fission products (FPs) 99Tc, 129I, and 135Cs, and heat-generating FPs, 90Sr and 137Cs, are separated in addition to the industrial reprocessing (separation of U and Pu). The separated MAs and some long-lived FPs are transmuted in a fast neutron spectrum; for example, either in a fast reactor (FR) or in an accelerator-driven system (ADS). The major advantage of the P&T option is the reduction of the long-term burden of nuclear repositories and thereby increased public acceptance. An efficient and selective recovery of the key elements from spent nuclear waste is absolutely essential for a successful sustainable fuel cycle concept.

This necessitates that Am and Cm can be separated selectively from lanthanide fission products, certainly the most difficult and challenging task in advanced reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel due to the very similar chemical behavior of trivalent elements. Two types of processes can be applied to the separation of long-lived radionuclides: hydrochemical (wet) and pyrochemical (dry).

If a so-called double strata concept, as proposed for example in the aforementioned OMEGA project would be adopted, the well-established industrial reprocessing of commercial LWR fuel with a recycling of U and Pu based on PUREX extraction could be combined in the first stratum with an advanced aqueous partitioning scheme to also separate the long-lived radionuclides. Those could be transmuted in the second stratum in ADSs or in FRs of the new generation reactor systems proposed in the GIF roadmap. A large variety of advanced fuels is under investigation within the development of these reactor systems. These fairly refractory materials have a limited solubility in aqueous media, which is one of the reasons why pyrochemical techniques could be selected as a reprocessing option in the second stratum.

The main advantages of pyrochemical separation process are as follows:.Good fuel and target solubility in molten salts, suitability for the treatment of highly refractory materials (e.g., ceramic-based targets). The dry reprocessing techniques can be applied as well for the recycling of the homogeneously distributed MA in a fast reactor fuel as in accelerator-driven systems where the MAs are irradiated as oxides, carbides, metals, or in inert matrices with concentrations up to 20%.Possibilities to treat materials with a minimum cooling time. Due to the higher radiation and thermal resistance of the inorganic reactants used in the processes, the reprocessing of short-cooled spent fuel is possible. The doubling time of the bred fissile material decreases (because the out-of-pile time of the fuel is reduced). For the spent fuel, cooling times as short as a few months seem possible compared to the present 5 years and longer needed for aqueous reprocessing.Integrated irradiation-reprocessing facility. Compactness of the process equipment reduces the number of cost-intensive and complicated transports of nuclear materials considerably.Lower criticality hazard due to the absence of water and thus of a neutron moderator in the process.Proliferation-resistant process.